DNA encoding schemes herald a new age in cybersecurity for safeguarding digital assets | Scientific Reports – Nature.com

In the unique domain of network safety, the previous ten years have seen an extraordinary expansion in interest and improvement in Web and correspondence innovations. This development has moved network security into a significant exploration space, utilizing instruments like firewalls and antivirus programming to guarantee the honesty of organizations and their related computerized resources inside the internet. Notwithstanding, amidst this development, another methodology has arisen: DNA encoding plans. This change in perspective vows to alter network safety by offering imaginative ways of safeguarding computerized resources with extraordinary proficiency and adaptability.

Online protection is a basic worry in our interconnected world, influencing the two people and organizations. The multiplication of virtual entertainment, distributed storage, and systems administration stages has acquainted various difficulties with information security, presenting clients with different dangers like forswearing of administration (DOS), malware, and ransomware¹. The advanced age has seen an expansion in digital dangers, prompting information breaks, monetary misfortunes, and reputational harm². As worldwide populaces and economies extend, the interest in economic energy sources to battle environmental change is expanding. Simultaneously, vigorous security calculations are expected to shield our advanced framework from digital dangers³. In this unique circumstance, DNA-based encryption arises as a promising arrangement, which exploits engineered DNA groupings to upgrade computerized security while further developing energy effectiveness⁴. Traditional encryption strategies have restrictions, prompting the quest for elective techniques, for example, DNA encoding plans. These plans utilize engineered DNA groupings to encode advanced information, exploiting DNA’s interesting properties, for example, strength and protection from corruption⁵. Thus, DNA encoding plans can change network safety by giving better security and powerful information assurance⁶. Cryptography has for some time been significant in systems administration and network protection. The center has gone to DNA encoding plans as a data-based security instrument, offering validation and insurance against digital dangers⁷.

Late exploration has shown that DNA-based encryption calculations can utilize less energy than customary strategies, tending to the developing interest in manageable energy sources⁸. This paper aims to investigate the capability of DNA-based encryption as an energy-productive answer for computerized security. Not at all like past examinations, this one spotlight late exploration articles and utilizes a thorough strategy to recognize pertinent writing⁹.

This study covers different parts of DNA encoding plans, including qualities, shortcomings, assessment measurements, ongoing patterns, and energy-saving elements, filling in as an important asset for scientists and experts¹⁰. This paper is coordinated into seven principal segments, including philosophy, an outline of DNA encoding plans, strategies utilized, assaults tended to, assessment measurements, results, and ends. Through thorough examination, it features the promising job of DNA encoding plans in improving online protection measures¹¹.

The purpose of this research paper is to provide a broad overview of the recent trends and advancements in DNA-based encoding schemes. The key idea is to furnish up-to-date information on recent advancements in DNA-based encryption to provide a baseline for new researchers who want to start exploring this important domain. The main contributions of this article are threefold. (i) We conducted a systematic study to select recent journal articles focusing on various DNA-based cryptographic methods which are published during the last 5 years (2018–2023). (ii) We reviewed each article extensively and discussed its various features such as its proposed methodology, strengths, weaknesses, evaluation metrics, and the used datasets. (iii) Based on these observations, we provided the recent trends of using cryptographic methods for network security then highlighted various challenges in DNA-based cryptography and provided different future directions in this important domain.

There are many survey papers in the literature that provide some implementation details on DNA-based cryptographic methods and techniques. Our article is different from the other review articles in three aspects: (i) We followed a systematic article selection process to obtain more focused articles on network security design considering cryptographic techniques. While the other studies reviewed the general cryptographic methods without using the systematic approach. (ii) Our study reviewed the articles published between 2018 to 2023. So, it provides more detailed information to gain insight and knowledge of the recent cryptographic methods and the recent trends followed in the design of DNA-based cryptographic techniques. (iii) In our study, an extensive review of the recent cyber security attacks, and their countermeasures by implementing the DNA approach by the research is provided where they are critically analyzed according to their methods, techniques, datasets, and evaluation metrics. The focus is to provide researchers with more updated knowledge on information security by DNA-based approach in one place, where they can find the recent trends and potential research areas in the domain to start exploring it. A detailed comparison of this article with other review articles is provided in Table 1.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: “Methodology” describes the research methodology adopted in this study. “An overview of DNA encoding scheme” provides the basic DNA concept and its constitution. “Related work on the DNA encoding scheme” elaborates on the related searches that are conducted in this domain. The details about the various attacks and the research that has used the DNA method to counter that respective attack successfully are elaborated in “DNA Security and different kinds of attacks“. “Strengths and weaknesses of each research study” comprises of strengths and weaknesses of the reviewed articles. Evaluation metrics and usage of tools to capture the results of DNA cryptography against various attacks are listed in “Evaluation metrics” and “Tools used” respectively. Observations, recent trends in cyber security, research challenges, and the future research scope are provided in “Recent trends, key findings, limitations, and future work“. Finally, the Conclusion section concludes this review article.

This study conducts a systematic literature review of the different DNA-based cyber security methods and investigates the published journal articles between 2017 to 2023. A systematic literature review is a methodology followed to identify, examine, and extract needful information from the literature related to certain research topics. We performed this systematic review in two phases. Phase 1 identifies the information resource (search engine) and keywords to execute a query to obtain an initial list of articles. Phase 2 applies certain criteria to the initial list to select the most related and core articles and store them in the final list which is reviewed in this article. The main purpose of this review article is to answer the following questions:

To address the questions outlined in Fig. 1, we adopt a data collection methodology. We use two methods: a systematic literature review (SLR) and a goal question metric (GQM) approach. SLR involves exploring a specific topic in predetermined steps and procedures to ensure that the review is focused, comprehensive, and accurate. To initiate SLR, we perform two steps: First, we use the GQM approach, which is a requirement engineering method for efficient requirements gathering³¹. To gain a thorough understanding of the research question, we set a goal and formulate questions to help us answer our research question, as shown in Fig. 2.

Our goal is to search for information related to the “DNA encoding scheme”^12,13, and accordingly, we formulate questions such as:

Q1. Which year will link to a related search?

Q2. What will be the research library?

Q3. What searches would be considered journals or proceedings?

Q4. Are we focusing on experience/results-based research?

Q5. What kind of search criteria will be applied to reach the ultimate goal?

In this phase, firstly search engines and keywords are identified for article search. A Scopus document search is chosen as a potential search engine due to its ability to search from almost all the well-known databases targeting keywords from each question from Q1 to Q5. We executed a search QUERY using an initial keyword “DNA-based encryption system” and adjusted the filter to show journal articles published between 2018 and 2023. The initial search QUERY resulted in the articles that proposed the DNA-based encryption method for cryptography, encryption, medical domain, and wireless networks, we then redefined our keyword DNA-based encryption for information security and DNA to use for information hiding (text and image) deep learning to obtain more relevant articles. As a result of phase 1, relevant articles based on the keywords were selected and stored as an initial list. The detailed steps used in Phase 1 to obtain an initial list are summarized in Fig. 2.

The second step involves conducting a systematic literature review based on the questions defined in the first step. This approach starts with an initial query to search for articles (short, long, chapters, conference papers) on Google Scholar. Then, queries are generated based on the queries set in the first step to filter the data through query processing⁹. At each step, additional filters are applied, such as a year filter in the first step, a selection of journal articles in the second step, and articles from IEEE, Science Direct, Springer, and Scopus in the third step. This process results in a tentative list of subjects. Then, final inclusion and exclusion criteria are applied, excluding survey papers and focusing on new research in the specific domain to obtain useful results. This gives the final list of subjects. From this list, the top 40 articles are selected for the survey by reading the abstract of each paper. The complete process is shown in Fig. 3.

Exclusion and inclusion criteria refer to specific guidelines used to determine which articles were included or excluded from the review. Inclusion criteria define the characteristics that an article should consider for inclusion, e.g. Focusing on DNA encoding schemes for cyber security and publishing in peer-reviewed sources. Exclusion criteria outline characteristics that exclude an article from consideration, such as lack of relevance to the topic, failure to meet quality standards, or duplication of existing literature. These criteria were established to ensure that the selected articles were relevant and credible, and provided new insights for the literature review.

When the second step is completed, we need to select key variables on which our research will be based¹⁴. Here eight variables were identified and they are:

• Data encoding scheme

• Encryption algorithm

• Strengths

• Weaknesses

• Cloud computing

• Evaluation metrics

• Attacks

• Data encryption

Figure 4 explains the complete process under one umbrella, where it’s time to uncover the findings we analyzed during our review study. The next part explains the basic structure of DNA.

Four different nucleotides, namely Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T), combine to form deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This arrangement takes the form of a double helix structure, as depicted in Fig. 5. The binary sequence of each nucleotide is presented in Table 2.

The Watson–Crick complementary base pair rule dictates the pairing of nucleotides in DNA sequences, which can be represented as binary chains of 0 s and 1 s. These sequences are machine-readable and enhance the efficiency and security of processes¹⁵. DNA-based cryptography is employed to ensure data security in communication processes. These binary sequences create unique patterns that facilitate encryption and decryption processes, providing a secure mechanism against unauthorized access. This robust security mechanism has gained popularity in network security and is increasingly adopted by researchers to ensure data confidentiality and security¹⁶. The next section discusses related studies on DNA-based encoding schemes reviewed in this paper, adopting various systematic review approaches as examples.

This section provides an overview of various articles reviewed in this survey-based paper, all focusing on DNA security schemes and evaluating their effectiveness¹⁷. In 2020, Suyel Namasudraa and colleagues came up with a new DNA-based data encryption method for cloud computing¹⁸. Junxin Chen and team combined DNA encryption with 2D Henon sin maps¹⁹. Muhammad Samiyllah’s group extended current techniques to create an asymmetric encryption method for color images²⁰. Ebrahim Zarei Zefreh designed a unique image encryption system using a hybrid model of DNA computing, chaotic systems, and hash functions²¹.

Lidong Liu and team used DNA encryption alongside a 5D hyper chaotic system, while Jan Sher Khan applied DNA-based keys for image encryption²². Maria Imdad built upon DNA encryption by using a DNA sequence table to substitute plaintext²³. Dongming Huo introduced a more secure algorithm by integrating DNA Morse code patterns²⁴. Jeena Jacob’s team proposed an approach to combine DNA and compressed sensing theories for image compression encryption²⁵. Roayat Ismail Abdelfattah created a DNA codec technique using biometric data and Z pattern generation²⁶. Suyel Namasudra used self-adaptive bit scrambling and multi-chaotic dynamic DNA computations for audio encryption²⁷. Similarly, Arslan Shafique assessed DNA encoding for encrypting patient information in medical images²⁸. Said E. El-Khamy used support vector machines and DNA to evaluate cryptosystem security levels. Nadeem Iqbal suggested a way to encrypt color images with DNA strands and chaotic systems²⁹. Wei Feng used DNA for image encryption and steganography³⁰. Zhen Li proposed encrypting color images with DNA strands and chaotic systems³¹. Tingwei Wu designed an image encryption scheme with pixel-level filtering and DNA-level diffusion³². Bahubali Akiwate used chaos-based image encryption with random DNA encoding and permutation³³.

Shuqin Zhu introduced a DNA extension code to encrypt downlink data in OFDM-PON. Dilovan Asaad Zebari found DNA encoding to be an efficient method for image cryptography³⁴. K.C. Jithin employed a dynamic DNA hyperchaotic system for image encryption³⁵. V. Radhakrishnan developed a multi-level DNA encryption algorithm. S. M. SeragEldin combined chaotic maps and DNA sequences to modify a hash algorithm³⁶. T. Saba used machine learning for intrusion detection across IoT datasets. F. Ahmed proposed an approach for encrypting color images using a convolutional autoencoder, DNA, and chaos³⁷. Sreeja Cherillath Sukumaran worked with chaotic image encryption and DNA operations³⁸. Harsh Durga Tiwari used lightweight encryption with DNA sequences for smart meter communication security³⁹. Dr. A. Murugan explored cloud security with DNA-based encryption for bio-computational operations⁴⁰. A. Akhavan developed a hybrid DNA-encoded ECC scheme for multi-level security⁴¹. Manoj Kumar Pandey improved cloud data security using DNA sequences with Morse code and zigzag pattern encoding⁴². Xiuli Chai explored the security of DNA-based image encryption methods⁴³.

Md. Rafiul Biswas implemented a DNA cryptosystem with AES and RSA for key management⁴⁴. Eungi Hong presented a color image cryptosystem using dynamic DNA encryption and a four-wing hyper chaotic system³⁵. Mousomi Roy worked with dynamic DNA encoding and asymmetric cryptosystems for data secrecy⁴⁵. Wei Feng used a DNA-based fuzzy vault scheme to protect IIoT device keys. S.K. Pujari proposed a two-stage method for image protection using DNA encryption and PCR amplification⁴⁶. Suyel Namasudra improved an encryption scheme and analyzed it using a chosen plaintext attack algorithm⁴⁷.

This summary provides insights into the various research endeavors explored in the reviewed articles, demonstrating the diverse applications and advancements in DNA-based encryption schemes. Figure 6 shows the research studies along with key variable.

This section covers a brief description of each attack that is being discussed in reviewed papers along with the frequency count of it in reviewed research studies^32,33 to come up with the significance of an attack against a DNA security scheme. This will facilitate reaching inferences about the most important and least elaborated list of attacks in the network domain³⁴. As a network user, attacks are divided into Active ones and passive ones. The list of attacks described from 1 to 10 comes in this category followed by passive attacks and the last section covers the information about weak attacks as they are not elaborated on in more reviewed research studies. The taxonomical diagram to represent different categories of attacks is shown in Fig. 7 and the percentage of each attack discussed in research studies is illustrated in Fig. 8.

Active attacks

In this type of attack, an attacker directly actively targets the system’s security, making the destructive action immediately noticeable to the victim. It encompasses the following types, as observed in recently reviewed studies.

Malware injection (MI)

Malware, or malicious software, is specifically designed to facilitate illegal or unethical activities by suspicious users. Malware attacks are common in the cyber world, where attackers inject harmful applications into systems using Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) methods. Once the malicious code is injected and executed, it appears as a legitimate application, allowing the attacker to gain access to the system’s resources. This enables the attacker to carry out further attacks and control the compromised system actively or passively, posing a threat to its security. DNA cryptography has been proven effective against such attacks, as demonstrated in research studies by Suyel Namasudraa et al. (2020). These studies provide significant evidence of DNA’s scalability and data compatibility, making it a secure and energy-efficient approach^35,36,37,38.

Denial of service (DOS)

A denial of service (DOS) attack is a common type of attack in networking environments where the availability of any service is intentionally disrupted through unauthorized activity. This is often achieved by generating a high volume of network traffic, leading to network congestion or system crashes. The goal of a DOS attack is to render services unavailable for a victim or destabilize the entire system. Royat Ismail Abdelfatah (2020) efficiently addressed this attack using the DNA method with minimal energy consumption^39,40.

Brute force attack (BFA)

A brute force attack employs a trial and error method where the attacker continuously attempts to guess the secret key used to encrypt the selected text. This approach is commonly used to break passwords and security credentials. To mitigate this threat, it is recommended to use a strong key, such as a complex password or another robust security measure, to increase the difficulty for attackers attempting brute force attacks. Suyel Namasudra (2020), Jan Sher Khan et al. (2020), Junxin Chen et al. (2020), Zhen Li et al. (2020), Lidong Liu et al. (2020), Arslan Shafique et al. (2021), Ebrahim Zarei Zefreh (2020), and Mousomi Roy et al. (2019) have efficiently addressed this attack using DNA security schemes^{35,41,42,43,44,45,46,47}

Frequency analysis involves studying the frequency of letters used in ciphertext to predict patterns and potentially break the encryption. Wei Feng et al. (2018), Lidong Liu et al. (2020), and Maria Imdad et al. (2020) have tackled this attack using DNA security methods, finding them suitable for large-scale applications and energy-saving approaches⁴⁸.

Plain text attack (PTA)

In a known plaintext attack, the attacker has access to both the plaintext and encrypted text, making it easier for them to deduce the encryption method and uncover additional secret information. Junxin Chen et al. (2020) and Jan Sher Khan et al. (2020) have devised techniques to address this attack using DNA sequences in their studies⁴⁹.

In a chosen plaintext attack, the attacker can select plaintext and observe its corresponding ciphertext. Muhammad Samiullah et al. (2020), Lidong Liu et al. (2020), Arslan Shafique et al. (2021), and Dongming Huo et al. (2020) have addressed these attacks using DNA methods and energy-efficient approaches in their studies⁵⁰

Cipher text attack (CA)

A ciphertext attack is when an attacker obtains information about encrypted ciphertext and attempts to deduce the secret key used for encryption and decryption. Maria Imdad et al. (2020) and Wei Feng et al. (2018) addressed this attack using DNA security schemes, demonstrating its durability and energy-efficient storage capabilities successfully⁵¹.

Phishing attack (PA)

Phishing is a type of social engineering attack where the attacker impersonates a legitimate entity, such as a user, organization, government agency, or bank, to deceive users into providing sensitive information or performing certain actions. This typically involves requests for credentials, such as password resets or email confirmations with malicious links. Once the user falls for the deception, the attacker can exploit the vulnerability to steal or damage data. Suyel Namasudraa et al. (2020) used DNA security sequences to mitigate this attack, recognizing it as a promising energy-saving approach for the future. Another related attack is spoofing, which is described below^{4,52,53,54,55,56}.

Statistical attack (SA)

This category targets statistical weaknesses in the system and exploits them accordingly. It may involve attacks on databases containing data, the efficiency of algorithms, packet arrival rates, and other statistical data objects to undermine system security. Arslan Shafique et al. (2021), Zhen Li et al. (2020), Jan Sher Khan et al. (2020), and Royat Ismail Abdelfatah (2020) have utilized DNA methods to address this type of attack efficiently in terms of energy consumption. A specific example of a statistical attack is a side-channel attack, where malicious code does not directly infiltrate the system. This attack relies on technical aspects of the system such as timing, power consumption, alarms, notifications, and other events generated by the system or application. DNA-based schemes have been demonstrated to effectively counter such attacks, as shown in a study by Said E. El-Khamy et al. (2020)^{57,58,59,60,61}.

Network-wide attack (NWA)

This refers to a targeted attack on interconnected networking nodes aimed at compromising security and disrupting the network. Harsh Durga Tiwari et al. (2018) and Manoj Kumar Pandey (2018) examined the use of DNA sequences to mitigate this attack and assessed its effectiveness in terms of energy preservation.

Passive attacks

Passive attacks involve the silent observation by attackers without the knowledge or interaction of the sender or receiver. Some common types include:

Man in the MIDDLE (MITM)

In computer networking, a “man-in-the-middle” (MITM) attack refers to a covert activity where an intruder positions themselves between the sender and receiver. They silently intercept communication or manipulate it to carry out destructive actions. This poses a threat to users as messages are diverted through a third party before reaching the receiver. DNA can effectively counter this attack, as discussed by Monika Yadava et al., 2020 and Suyel Namasudra, 2020. A masquerade attack, a subtype of MITM, involves the attacker posing as a legitimate sender or receiver and controlling communication from that position. I. Jeena Jacob et al., 2020 and Suyel Namasudra have demonstrated the efficacy of DNA in handling this attack, showing it to be a more energy-efficient approach compared to existing methods.

Insider attack (IA)

One of the most common threats to organizations is insider attacks, where internal employees leak sensitive information, data, or security credentials intentionally to cause harm. Identifying and apprehending perpetrators of such attacks can be challenging without substantial evidence. These attacks are typically motivated by personal or professional reasons, such as gaining financial assets or tarnishing the organization’s reputation. Suyel Namasudraa et al., 2020, have investigated methods to mitigate this threat using DNA security techniques in an energy-efficient manner. Table 3 visually summarizes the articles reviewed in terms of the attacks they address.

Other attacks

Attacks that are less addressed in reviewed studies are listed here:

Eavesdropping attack (EA)

In a MITM attack, the attacker gains control of transmitted data, intercepts, modifies, drops, or resends it according to their intentions. Thus, in eavesdropping, the attacker deliberately manipulates transmitted data from their side of the networked system. EungI Hong et al., 2021, effectively utilized the DNA method to address this attack with reduced computational cost and energy savings.

Jamming attacks (JA)

A jamming attack is a subset of DOS in which the attacker deliberately floods the network with artificial interference, rendering communication nodes unavailable for use. EungI Hong et al., 2021, implemented DNA sequences to mitigate this attack. References^62,63 has also discussed strategies to address this attack using various AI techniques with reduced energy consumption.

Crypto attack (CA)

Attacks on cryptography, cryptocurrency, bitcoins, and similar systems are categorized as crypto attacks, which are increasingly common in today’s world and can have catastrophic consequences if not addressed promptly and effectively. Harsh Durga Tiwari et al., 2018, and Manoj Kumar Pandey, 2018, adopted DNA techniques to evaluate its effectiveness against these attacks and found improved energy performance compared to traditional methods⁶⁴.

Differential attacks (DA)

This type of attack is mainly associated with block ciphers but can also be related to stream ciphers and hash functions, aiming to deduce the user’s secret key by observing differences in network transmission and other related properties. The DNA scheme can be utilized to secure the system from these types of attacks while consuming less energy. This approach is discussed in studies by Muhammad Samiullah et al., 2020, Dongming Huo et al., 2020, Jan Sher Khan et al., 2020, Zhen Li et al., 2020, Said E. El-Khamy et al., 2020, Bahubali Akiwate et al., 2021, and Royat Ismail Abdelfatah, 2020.

Replay attack (RA)

This type of attack, also known as a repeat or playback attack, involves the delay or repetition of valid data transmission to cause harm or unethical activity. V. Radhakrishnan et al., 2019 and K.C. Jithin et al., 2020 utilized DNA techniques to address this attack and conserve energy efficiently.

Based on the frequency of attacks studied in various research papers, we have compiled Table 4, which displays the percentage of attacks along with their frequency counts, followed by a figure representing these percentages in the form of a pie chart.

This section presents the analysis of each reviewed article in terms of its strengths and weaknesses. The analytical study revealed that DNA has significantly enhanced the security of the observed systems in all the reviewed articles. As this was a critical analysis, we compared the articles with one another to provide a comprehensive comparison of studies using DNA schemes as the security method of the recent era.

To summarize the limitations of the articles, we have identified the following key points:

• Use of limited or closed data set

• Evaluation of scheme under fewer security hazards/threats

• Consideration of fewer evaluation metrics in studies

• Lack of latest technology/tool in methodology

• Minimum track of text-based results through DNA

Table 5 narrates the comparative analysis in terms of the strengths and weaknesses of reviewed studies^{67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75}.

Table 6 covers various key variables of energy efficiency in reviewed articles.

Table 7 illustrates a list of evaluation metrics along with its definition and abbreviation^{65,66,67,68,69,70}.

Table 8 illustrates a summarized view of used evaluation metrics in various research studies.

Providing details about evaluation metrics and tools ensures transparency, reproducibility, methodological rigor, and accurate interpretation of results in survey research.

The time taken by the system to generate a secret key refers to as Secret key generation time (SKGT) whereas the time consumed by the system to retrieve back the secret key is Secret key retrieval time (SKRT). Figure 9 plots the relationship between used matrices and the number of times it is studied in reviewed articles.

Various tools were employed to evaluate the performance of the proposed method and obtain results. This section depicts percentage of each tool is used in the form of a pie chart. Figure 10 shows the percentage of each tools used in research studies.

Cloudsim

This framework is utilized for cloud computing environments, providing simulation services. It is among the most popular cloud-based simulators in academia and research, originally developed in Java as open- source software.

Matlab

Matlab offers a versatile computing platform with multiple functionalities, including data analysis, algorithm design, application creation, cloud computing, as well as image processing and computer vision. It is extensively used for testing, measurements, and various performed tests.

Mathematica

This software features built-in library functions beneficial for cloud computing tasks such as user interface, algorithm design, machine learning, and function implementation.

NIST test suite

NIST produces test suites for three functional domains: requirement-based, security-based, and human-factor-oriented. These suites encompass specialized areas like volume testing, requirement testing, and logic testing.

This section discusses the observations made during the review of research studies, the challenges encountered, and potential future research directions.

Recent trends

Many research studies have employed the DNA security method with image-based data to assess image security. Additionally, it’s often combined with other concepts such as diffusion substitution schemes, chaotic maps, deep learning, supervised machine learning, and other AI-related methodologies. DNA encoding is predominantly used for protecting cloud data compared to other types of networked data. When not applied in cloud systems, this scheme is implemented with either new algorithms or adapted algorithms for existing datasets. Various types of attacks are addressed to mitigate their harmful effects, with some attacks being more prevalent than others. Dominant attacks include DOS, malware injection, noise attacks, chosen plaintext, and ciphertext-only attacks, which are extensively discussed and evaluated for mitigation methods. Statistical methods are commonly used for evaluation, including correlation coefficient, variance, and histogram analysis. Other metrics like PSNR, NPCR, and UACI are also frequently focused on in many studies. Additionally, entropy information is often analyzed and discussed in research studies. Matlab it is the preferred tool for evaluating research metrics compared to other tools used in research studies.

Key findings

The paper has several implications for researchers and practitioners in the field of cyber security:

It emphasizes the potential of DNA encoding schemes as an alternative approach to traditional encryption techniques for enhancing cyber security measures while consuming less energy compared to existing methods. This finding can inspire researchers to explore new avenues for data encryption and decryption using synthetic DNA patterns. DNA, being a durable storage medium resistant to harsh environmental conditions, offers a potentially energy-efficient approach for long-term data storage. Furthermore, considering the scalability of DNA-based encryption algorithms and their compatibility with existing hardware and software systems is crucial when evaluating their potential as an energy-efficient approach to digital security.

It identifies several research gaps in DNA-based data encryption methods, such as the lack of standardized evaluation metrics and the need for more practical applications in real-world scenarios. These gaps can guide future research directions and help researchers develop more robust and effective DNA encoding schemes. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive overview of various techniques used by researchers to implement DNA encoding schemes, such as encryption algorithms, substitution-permutation, and hybrid methods. This information can assist practitioners in choosing the most appropriate method for their particular application.

The paper underscores the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of DNA encoding schemes using various metrics such as security, speed, and accuracy to develop more efficient encryption algorithms capable of withstanding various types of attacks. Moreover, it demonstrates that DNA encoding schemes have potential applications in various domains such as cloud computing, image encryption, and secure communication. This finding can inspire the exploration of new use cases for DNA-based data encryption techniques in different fields.

Limitations

As most of the trend depicts that cloud computing was more secure with DNA schemes, it remains an open challenge for researchers to work in the other domains with DNA encoding and come up with their contributions. DNA scheme is less used for text-based data as compared to audio and image-based data. So this opens a new challenge for future research where more work could be done and contributed towards cyber security. DNA security scheme must have experimented with a variety of security attacks that digital security face and it is challenging for upcoming research studies to work this scheme with those attacks (such as Sybil attack and differential attack) that are not tested yet with this protective method in a networking environment.

New metrics could be formed and tested for experimental results such as deep learning models, supervised vector machines, Turing machines, and concepts related to automata which will open a new dimension for researchers to combine network security with other branches of quantum physics, combinatory, and other computing and engineering-related methods for evaluation and adaptation.

Despite Matlab, SPSS could be an open challenge and used in the next research to show statistical results. For image-based data handling, ArcGIS and Wika have not experimented with DNA security methods and it could be an interesting combo to combine any of this software with any programming platform to bring the latest findings in the cyber security domain⁷⁴.

The paper only focuses on DNA-based data encryption techniques and does not cover other emerging technologies such as blockchain and quantum computing, which can also have significant implications for cyber security. Moreover, it does not provide a detailed analysis of the technical aspects of DNA encoding schemes, such as the chemical properties of synthetic DNA sequences and their interactions with digital data. This information could have provided a more in-depth understanding of the underlying mechanisms of DNA-based data encryption techniques and that opens a new direction for future work too, where these areas will be discussed in much detail.

Future trend

The future direction of DNA encoding schemes is promising, with the potential to revolutionize cybersecurity. Some key future directions for DNA encoding schemes include:

1. 1.

   Developing more efficient and cost-effective methods for synthesizing DNA sequences.

2. 2.

   Integrating DNA encoding schemes with other security mechanisms like encryption and block chain technology.

3. 3.

   Exploring new applications for DNA encoding schemes beyond data storage, such as authentication and biometric identification.

4. 4.

   Developing standardized protocols for DNA sequencing and analysis to ensure consistency and reliability across different platforms.

5. 5.

   Investigating the ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) associated with the use of DNA encoding schemes in cyber security

Exploring the energy efficiency benefits of DNA-based encryption as the future of digital security

The world is facing increasing demands for energy as populations grow and economies develop. To address this challenge, there’s a global shift towards sustainable and renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass. This transition is driven by the need to mitigate climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions⁸¹.

Encryption methods consume significant amounts of energy due to the complex mathematical operations involved. The energy consumption varies depending on factors like the encryption algorithm, data size, and hardware/software used. Efforts are underway to develop more energy-efficient encryption algorithms and hardware to reduce energy consumption while maintaining security^82,83.

DNA-based Encryption is one such method that claims to be energy-efficient. It has several potential energy-saving advantages:

1. 1.

   Key Generation: DNA sequences can generate encryption keys more efficiently than traditional methods⁸⁴.

2. 2.

   Data Encryption: DNA sequences encrypt data with less complexity compared to traditional methods⁸⁵.

3. 3.

   Storage: DNA has high storage density, reducing the need for additional storage devices and associated energy consumption.

4. 4.

   Transmission: DNA can securely transmit data over wireless networks, reducing the need for wired connections and energy consumption.

5. 5.

   Scalability: DNA sequences can store large amounts of data in a small space, requiring less physical storage and equipment⁸⁶.

6. 6.

   Cost Effectiveness: DNA-based encryption can be cost-effective, reducing the need for expensive storage solutions⁸⁷.

7. 7.

   Lightweight: DNA-based methods are compact and easy to implement, requiring simple equipment⁸⁸.

8. 8.

   Uniqueness: Each individual’s DNA is unique, providing a high level of uniqueness in data security.

9. 9.

   Compatibility: DNA methods can integrate with existing security schemes and technologies, making them easy to adopt⁸⁹.

10. 10.

    Future Potential: Ongoing research may lead to even more advanced DNA-based security methods, saving energy and enhancing security⁹⁰.

In summary, DNA-based encryption algorithms offer energy savings by minimizing computational requirements and enabling efficient data storage and transmission. They are durable, compatible, unique, and lightweight, making them ideal for future security applications, thereby saving energy and computational costs.

In conclusion, DNA security schemes offer a potent means of safeguarding cyber data while conserving energy in networked environments. Recent research studies have underscored its efficacy through experimental findings. This review paper has curated top relevant studies, highlighting their insights through detailed analysis. The abundance of recent research in DNA security underscores its emergence as a pivotal trend in network security. DNA encoding appears poised to shape the future of digital security in our energy-conscious world. Cloud data protection has emerged as a primary application area for DNA encoding, with significant experimentation also seen in image-based data security, particularly in cloud computing. The prevalence of chosen plain text attack, cipher text-only attack, malware injection attack, noise attack, and DOS in recent studies indicates the focus on mitigating these threats using DNA encoding. Statistical metrics have emerged as the primary evaluation method, with Matlab being the preferred tool for assessing the effectiveness of DNA security schemes. In “DNA security and different kinds of attacks“, the discussion on attacks serves to contextualize the current literature by highlighting the prevalent security challenges faced in the field of DNA encoding schemes for cyber security. By addressing various types of attacks and their significance, the section provides valuable insights into the practical implications and vulnerabilities encountered in the literature. Understanding these challenges is crucial for assessing the effectiveness of existing approaches and identifying areas for further research and improvement. Therefore, while the focus of the section may appear divergent from a traditional literature review, it ultimately contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the current state of the field and informs future directions for research and development. For future research it is suggested to have more exploration of DNA encoding with emphasizing on the consideration of ethics and privacy as with the association of data of DNA in cyber security having issues and problems related to the consent, ownership of data and misuse potential. Moreover, further research can be concluded on the basis of threats of computing against the resilience of the schemes of DNA. The article selection criteria were based on both inclusion and exclusion criteria. Included articles focused on DNA encoding schemes for cyber security, were published in reputable peer-reviewed sources, and offered novel insights. Excluded articles lacked relevance, failed to meet quality standards, or duplicated existing literature. These criteria aimed to ensure a comprehensive and credible literature review. Overall, DNA methods remain a vibrant research area, offering promise for the development of more efficient and sustainable data encryption techniques in networked computing environments. This paper serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners seeking insights into DNA encoding schemes, facilitating the advancement of cyber security practices with enhanced efficiency and precision.